Introduction to the subject
Braudel (1902-1985) & Israel (1946-)
The two most important authors about the Dutch in the Mediterranean are Braudel and Israel. The biggest difference between the two is that Braudel places the golden age of Dutch trade in the Mediterranean in the first part of the seventeenth century whereas Israel sees the second part of the seventeenth century as the Republics golden age. This study is looking upon this question of Dutch economic growth in the seventeenth century. But it tries to put the economic growth in the perspective of the network of Dutch merchant colonies. Did the merchant colonies contribute to the economic growth, where they the cause of it, or didn’t they have any part in it? The research question that is answered in the study and in this summary online is: “To what extent was the network of Dutch merchant colonies determinative for the development of Dutch trade in the Mediterranean in the seventeenth century?”.
The Dutch trade 1590-1647
Ferdinando I Grand Duke of Tuscany (1587-1609)
Flemish merchant colonies already existed from 1570. After the fall of Antwerp in 1685 many merchant got family members who moved to Amsterdam. Due to this link the Grand Duke of Tuscany found his way to Amsterdam when he was in need of grain. Bad harvests led to big grain shortages in 1590. The Dutch had the grain and the ships and so the Dutch presence in the Mediterranean started in 1590. The first three years went well and the Dutch transported a lot of Grain to northern Italy. But then the Staten Generaal forbade the export of grain and as a result the Dutch trade with Italy collapsed until 1600. From 1600 the Dutch trade started to grow. Dutch merchant settled in the cities of Tuscany and the transportation character of the trade changed. The Dutch merchants now started to sell the grain themselves, instead of only transporting it. This is where the merchant colonies became so important. They provided information about the market and formed the link between the Dutch and Italian merchants.
The twelve years’ truce (1609-1621) opened the Spanish ports for the Dutch. Now the Dutch could trade with the Spanish, but they also could get Spanish silver. Due to this silver the Dutch could trade in the Levant, where you needed Spanish silver to trade. In the Republic the costs of living decreased and as a result of that the wages of ship crew became lower. The Dutch could transported goods cheaper than the English and where able to become the most dominant trading nation in the Mediterranean. By 1620 they controlled the trade and where transporting and selling goods from Spain to Italy and form the Levant to Italy. The even controlled the spice trade in the Mediterranean. The number of merchant colonies grew rapidly and soon the Staten Generaal sent consuls to protect the merchants in the Mediterranean. The merchant colonies followed the economic growth but weren’t the cause of it. The transition from transport to actual trade in combination with favourable circumstances caused the Dutch to gain the leading position in the Mediterranean.
After the twelve years’ truce the Spanish ports closed again and the Dutch lost their position in the trade with Spain and the Levant. Israel stated that the Dutch trade collapsed after 1621 but this is not true. The Dutch trade focused again on selling grain to northern Italy. The problem was that northern Italy had good harvests between 1620 and 1625. Although this was a problem, the Dutch remained the most dominant trading nation until 1628 when the English took over. The Dutch merchant colonies provided the Dutch with a better position than the English. The English often only stayed for a short period of time, whereas the Dutch stayed for more than ten years. This shows that in periods when the trade was difficult the Dutch could rely on their merchant colonies.
The twelve years’ truce (1609-1621) opened the Spanish ports for the Dutch. Now the Dutch could trade with the Spanish, but they also could get Spanish silver. Due to this silver the Dutch could trade in the Levant, where you needed Spanish silver to trade. In the Republic the costs of living decreased and as a result of that the wages of ship crew became lower. The Dutch could transported goods cheaper than the English and where able to become the most dominant trading nation in the Mediterranean. By 1620 they controlled the trade and where transporting and selling goods from Spain to Italy and form the Levant to Italy. The even controlled the spice trade in the Mediterranean. The number of merchant colonies grew rapidly and soon the Staten Generaal sent consuls to protect the merchants in the Mediterranean. The merchant colonies followed the economic growth but weren’t the cause of it. The transition from transport to actual trade in combination with favourable circumstances caused the Dutch to gain the leading position in the Mediterranean.
After the twelve years’ truce the Spanish ports closed again and the Dutch lost their position in the trade with Spain and the Levant. Israel stated that the Dutch trade collapsed after 1621 but this is not true. The Dutch trade focused again on selling grain to northern Italy. The problem was that northern Italy had good harvests between 1620 and 1625. Although this was a problem, the Dutch remained the most dominant trading nation until 1628 when the English took over. The Dutch merchant colonies provided the Dutch with a better position than the English. The English often only stayed for a short period of time, whereas the Dutch stayed for more than ten years. This shows that in periods when the trade was difficult the Dutch could rely on their merchant colonies.
The Dutch trade 1647-1700
Source: N.W. Posthumus, Leidsche lakenindustrie, 930-931
After 1647 the Spanish ports opened once more and the Dutch trade in the Mediterranean grew again. Due to the Ottoman-Venetian war (1645-1669) the trade between Italy and the Ottoman Empire came to an hold. This trade which consisted mostly of fabrics was there for the taking of the Dutch and English. The Dutch could sell their Leidse laken in the Levant. This caused the growth of the Dutch trade in the Mediterranean but also caused another transition of the Dutch trade. The Dutch now changed from merchants into producers who tried to sell their laken in the Levant. The export of laken became very important but also the import of wool increased. The Dutch imported wool from Spain but also angora wool from the Levant which was turned into greinen. The rivalry between the Dutch and English was fierce but it where the English who always where more dominant than the Dutch. The Dutch merchant colonies played a very imported role in establishing the fabric trade in the Levant. In 1651 Smyrna (Izmir) became the most important merchant colony instead of Aleppo. This caused an enormous growth in the Dutch laken industry as you can see in the graph. It shows the growth in the greinen industry, which needed the angora wool from 1655. The growth didn’t start earlier because of the first Anglo-Dutch war (1652-1654). But the merchant colony in Smyrna forms a perfect example for the important role that merchant colonies played for the growth of the trade after 1647.
Near the end of the seventeenth century where the French able to compete with the Dutch and English. The French organised their trade more at a national level then the Dutch this. Their economy was influenced by mercantilism. With their cloth from the Languedoc, the French where able to take over the Dutch position. The French where also capable in protecting their own trading ships against the corsairs from the Northern coast of Africa. The Dutch merchant colonies rapidly declined and instead most trade went direct with the Italian, mostly Jewish, merchants. As a result the Dutch couldn’t rely on the colonies in times of trouble. After the nine years ware (1688-1697) and the war of Spanish succession (1701-1714) the Dutch therefore had trouble retaining their powerful trading position in which they failed.
Near the end of the seventeenth century where the French able to compete with the Dutch and English. The French organised their trade more at a national level then the Dutch this. Their economy was influenced by mercantilism. With their cloth from the Languedoc, the French where able to take over the Dutch position. The French where also capable in protecting their own trading ships against the corsairs from the Northern coast of Africa. The Dutch merchant colonies rapidly declined and instead most trade went direct with the Italian, mostly Jewish, merchants. As a result the Dutch couldn’t rely on the colonies in times of trouble. After the nine years ware (1688-1697) and the war of Spanish succession (1701-1714) the Dutch therefore had trouble retaining their powerful trading position in which they failed.
Conclusion
Transportation, trade & production
Concluding it is possible to determine that the Dutch merchant colonies where of great importance for the development of the Dutch trade in the Mediterranean. It is possible to divide the Dutch presence in the Mediterranean into three phases. Transportation until 1600, trade until 1650 and production until 1700. Especially in the periods of transition from one phase to another the merchant colonies where important in the development of Dutch trade.
B.Q.
B.Q.
Used literature and further reading.
Braudel F., The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II (Londen 1981).
Bruin J.R., “De vaart in Europa” in: Maritieme geschiedenis der Nederlanden deel 2 1585-1680 ed. L.M. Akveld, S. Hart en W.J. van Hoboken, (Bussum 1977). Bulut M., “The role of the Ottomans and Dutch in the commercial integration between the Levant and Atlantic in the seventeenth century” in: Journal of the economic and social history of the orient. Vol. 45 afl. 2 (2002) 197-230. Cowan A., Mediterranean urban culture 1400-1700 (Exeter 2000). Engels M.C.A.E., Merchants, interlopers, seamen and corsairs the ‘Flemish’ community in Livorno and Genoa (1615-1635). (Hilversum 1997). Gelder M. van, Tranding places: The Netherlandish merchants in early modern Venice. (Leiden 2009). Greene M., “Beyond the northern invasion the Mediterranean in the seventeeth century” in past and present afl. 174 (2002) 42-71. Heeringa K., Bronnen tot de geschiedenis van den Levantschen handel, eerste deel 1590-1660. (’s-Gravenhage 1910). Kernkamp J.H., “Scheepvaart- en handelsbetrekkingen met Italië tijdens de opkomst der Republiek” in: Economisch-historische herdrukken, zeventien studiën van Nederlanders ed. het Nederlands economisch-historisch archief. (’s Gravenhage 1964) 199-234. Krieken G. van, Kapers en kooplieden. De betrekkingen tussen Algiers en Nederland (Amsterdam 1999). Israel J.I., “The phases of the Dutch straatvaart, 1590-1713: a chapter in the economic history of the Mediterranean” Tijdschrift voor geschiedenis Vol. 99 (1986) 1-30. Israel J.I., “The Dutch merchant colonies in the Mediterranean during the seventeenth century” in: Renaissance and Modern Studies Vol. 30 (1986) 87-108. Posthumus N.W., De geschiedenis van de Leidsche lakenindustrie, derde deel (’s-Gravenhage 1939). Royen P. van, “The First Phase of the Dutch Straatvaart (1591-1605): Fact and fiction.” International journal of maritime history Vol.2 (1990) 69-102. Veluwenkamp J.W., “Merchant colonies in the Dutch trade system (1550-1750)” in: Kapitaal, ondernemerschap en beleid, studies over economie en poitiek in Nederland, Europa en Azië van 1500 tot heden ed. C.A. Davids, W. Fritschy en L.A. van der Valk. (Amsterdam 1996) 141-164. |
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